Bearing Witness: Gaza Lexicon

A 2,000 pound bomb is a large military munition weighing approximately 900 kg, typically containing 500-1,000 pounds of high explosives, designed for destroying heavily fortified structures, bunkers, or large targets. Such weapons are among the largest conventional bombs in modern military arsenals, and can kill and injure people hundreds of metres from the point of detonation. In the context of the Gaza conflict, these heavy munitions have been used by the Israeli military and have drawn international attention due to their significant destructive capacity and potential for extensive collateral damage in densely populated areas. Just between October 7 and November 17, 2023, the Israeli military air-dropped nearly 600 highly destructive 2000 lb bombs on Gaza.

Aaron Bushnell was a 25-year-old member of the U.S. Air Force, who died after self-immolating outside the Israeli Embassy in Washington, D.C. on February 25, 2024, in protest of U.S. support for Israel’s military actions in Gaza. Before setting himself on fire, he livestreamed the act and declared he would “not be complicit in genocide,” making his death a notable act of political protest during the Israel-Gaza conflict, and drawing significant public and media attention to the issue.

Abduction is the forcible seizure and detention of individuals—civilians or combatants—by armed groups or military forces, often for leverage, negotiation, or exchange purposes. Such acts are considered violations of international humanitarian law and have been a recurring tactic in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

In armed conflicts, accountability refers to the obligation to answer for violations of laws and norms through mechanisms of investigation, prosecution, attribution of responsibility and sanctions. It applies to both military personnel and the political leadership whose decisions shape the conduct of hostilities.
In the Gaza war, accountability has been largely confined to internal IDF mechanisms and has been almost entirely absent from the political arena – inter alia because of the government’s refusal (to date) to set up a State Commission of Inquiry concerning the lead up to the Oct 7th attack. However, even within the IDF, measures have been limited in both scope and severity, with little indication that oversight or investigations have been pursued with the seriousness required under international standards.
Illustrative cases include 1. immediately following 7.10, then–Defense Minister Yoav Gallant declared a “complete siege” on Gaza, explicitly citing the prohibition of food, water, fuel, and electricity supplies. This, and similar pronouncements by him and other ministers triggered no legal response within Israel, but did subsequently result in ICC arrest warrants against him and PM Netanyahu; 2. Brig. Gen. Barak Hiram’s ordered the destruction of Israa University (January 30, 2024) bypassing required authorization; subsequently, his order led to a reprimand but then followed by his promotion to Gaza brigade commander; 3. Israeli forces’ attack on marked ambulances killed 15 emergency personnel (March 23, 2025) was followed by limited disciplinary measures but no judicial proceedings.

Agriculture is central to food security and community resilience. In the Gaza Strip, the sector has been systematically devastated by Israeli airstrikes and ground operations during the Gaza war. Compounded by restrictions on land, water, market access—and forced displacement— this has left the population acutely food insecure. By 2025, an estimated 95% of farmland has been damaged or rendered inaccessible, with 60–80% of cropland destroyed, 90% of cattle killed, and poultry production almost entirely eliminated. The dismantling of Gaza’s agrifood system has created near-total dependence on humanitarian aid. International organizations such as UNRWA and World Central Kitchen, along with community initiatives, have attempted to mitigate mass starvation. Yet access to aid remains highly politicized: Israel has restricted supply flows and conditioned entry through militarized systems, including the U.S.-backed Gaza Humanitarian Fund (GHF), further obstructing relief. Agriculture is central to food security and community resilience. In the Gaza Strip, the sector has been systematically devastated during the Gaza war. Restrictions on land, water, and market access—compounded by bombardment and displacement—have left the population acutely food insecure. By 2025, an estimated 95% of farmland had been damaged or rendered inaccessible, with 60–80% of cropland destroyed, 90% of cattle killed, and poultry production almost entirely eliminated. The dismantling of Gaza’s agrifood system has created near-total dependence on humanitarian aid. International organizations such as UNRWA and World Central Kitchen, along with community initiatives, have attempted to mitigate mass starvation. Yet access to aid remains highly politicized: Israel has restricted supply flows and conditioned entry through militarized systems, including the U.S.-backed Gaza Humanitarian Fund (GHF), further obstructing relief. The destruction of agriculture has wiped out livelihoods, erased food sovereignty, and deepened dependence.

Dr Ahmad Tibi (b. 1958) is an Israeli Arab politician and physician who has served in the Knesset, Israel’s parliament, since 1999. He is the leader of Ta’al (Arab Movement for Renewal), a party representing Arab citizens of Israel. Tibi has also served as Deputy Speaker of the Knesset, holding the position from 2006 to 2019 and again from 2019 onward, making him the first Arab parliamentarian to occupy the office for an extended period. Widely recognized as an advocate for Palestinian rights within Israel’s political system, Tibi has been an outspoken critic of Israeli military actions during the 2023–25 Israel–Gaza war, focusing particularly on civilian casualties. While condemning the Hamas-led attacks of October 7, 2023, he has emphasized what he calls the disproportionate scale of Palestinian losses, reporting the deaths of 13 of his relatives in Israeli airstrikes. He has also described what he sees as the growing persecution of Palestinian citizens of Israel, citing restrictions on speech and rising public hostility since the start of the war. In a March 11, 2025 interview with Middle East Eye, Tibi condemned what he described as plans for the “ethnic cleansing” of Gaza, linking initiatives associated with U.S. President Donald Trump and Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu to a broader decline in Israeli democracy. He warned of an “ethnocracy” and a “fascist atmosphere.” A long-standing and controversial figure in Israeli politics, Tibi has reported receiving hundreds of threats from Jewish Israelis since October 2023, with some labeling him a terrorist and demanding his removal from the Knesset. Despite this, he continues to advocate for his vision of Israel as a state for all its citizens, Arab and Jewish alike.

Aid refers to humanitarian assistance—including food, water, medical supplies, shelter materials, and other essential resources—provided to civilian populations in crisis. It is guided by the humanitarian principles of neutrality, impartiality, and independence.In the Gaza conflict, aid has been delivered by international organizations, governments, and NGOs to meet urgent needs and alleviate suffering. However, distribution has faced severe challenges due to damaged infrastructure, security risks, and restricted access to goods and aid workers. Following the October 7, 2023 attacks by Hamas, Israel imposed a total blockade on Gaza, halting aid entry for weeks, additionally aid workers have been killed in the fulfillment of their work. Even after partial resumption, deliveries remained far below the required 500–600 trucks per day, with only 20–100 trucks permitted daily. During the Gaza War aid access has been heavily politicized: Israel has restricted supply flows while promoting alternative mechanisms such as the US-backed Gaza Humanitarian Fund (GHF), established in February 2025. As of July 2025, some international agencies remained active in Gaza, but their operations were severely constrained by airstrikes, blockades, and funding cuts.

AIPAC (American Israel Public Affairs Committee) is a pro-Israel lobbying organization in the United States that advocates for strong U.S.-Israel relations. The organization has been particularly active in promoting continued U.S. military assistance to Israel and supporting Israel’s interests in the Middle East. Founded in 1951, AIPAC works through lobbying Congress, organizing political events, and mobilizing grassroots support for pro-Israeli policies. It is considered one of the most influential lobbying groups in the country, and has been criticised of distorting American foreign policy in the Middle East. According to former representative Brian Baird “Any member of Congress knows that AIPAC is associated indirectly with significant amounts of campaign spending if you’re with them, and significant amounts against you if you’re not with them.”

Airdrops refer to the supply of humanitarian aid—including water, food, medical supplies, and other essential items—delivered from aircraft to populations in areas that are difficult or dangerous to reach.
In the context of the Gaza conflict, airdrops have typically been conducted by states as well as by humanitarian organizations, in order to provide emergency assistance to Palestinian civilians . Airdrops allow for the distribution of aid without requiring ground coordination or passage through contested border crossings. However, the scale of aid delivered thereby is markedly lower than that delivered by land, in both quantity and efficiency. In fact, prominent international organizations have criticized airdrops as an inadequate, costly, and inefficient method for addressing large-scale humanitarian needs. Airdrops are problematic also because it is difficult to control their final destination. Consequently, supplies can land far from those in need, and be seized by unintended parties, or they can fall onto populated areas, where they can be fatal.
Some numbers: Between October 2023 and August 2025, over 80 airdrop operations delivered more than 3,800 tons of aid, primarily food. They have also resulted in the deaths of 23 people and injured 124 others.

An airstrike is a military attack carried out by manned aircraft or unmanned aerial vehicles, such as drones, using bombs, missiles, or other munitions.
In the Gaza war, airstrikes have been conducted almost exclusively by Israel against ground targets. These range from precision strikes aiming specific individuals or sites that are difficult or impossible for ground forces to reach, to broad bombardments designed to prepare areas for ground incursions or, alternatively, to reduce the need to send in troops. Because of their destructive power and the risk of high civilian casualties—particularly in a densely populated territory like Gaza—airstrikes are a central focus of legal and human rights concerns. The difficulty of distinguishing combatants from civilians in such environments further intensifies scrutiny.
Reliable data on the scale of air operations remains unavailable. Israel has not published figures, and estimates of the number of strikes between October 2023 and August 2025 vary from roughly 8,000 to more than 40,000. Precise information on the quantity of munitions used or the proportion of damage attributable solely to airstrikes is lacking altogether.
What is clear is that, in the war in Gaza, Israel has relied on air power to an unprecedented degree compared to its past military campaigns, with consequences that include exceptionally high civilian death tolls and extensive physical destruction. Analysts suggest this reliance reflects both a desire to limit Israeli military casualties and an unabashedly hostile approach to the population of Gaza on both the public and the political arenas.

Al Ahli Baptist Hospital, a medical facility in Gaza City founded in 1882, is one of only two hospitals in Gaza City providing cancer treatment. On 13 October, Israel ordered the evacuation of al-Ahli, along with all other hospitals in northern Gaza. On 14 October 2023, its Diagnostic Cancer Treatment Centre was struck by Israeli rockets, injuring four staff members and severely damaging critical departments, including mammography and ultrasound. Three days later, on 17 October 2023, a massive explosion ripped through the hospital’s parking lot, where displaced Palestinians had sought shelter. The Gaza Health Ministry reported 471 killed and 342 wounded, while U.S. intelligence estimates placed the death toll between 100 and 300. The blast’s origin remains disputed: while Israel blamed a failed Palestinian Islamic Jihad rocket launch, an IDF footage purportedly showing the misfire was quickly debunked by investigations from Al Jazeera and Forensic Architecture (FA). FA’s October 2023 report concluded the explosion resulted from an Israeli munition, and a 2024 follow-up investigation—using 3D modeling of rocket trajectories based on geolocated videos from hospital staff, journalists, and a stationary camera in Tel Aviv—found that the missile that hit the hospital originated outside Gaza, further undermining the misfired rocket narrative. By February 2024, the hospital was operating at 30% capacity, running solely on solar power, before being forcibly shut down and evacuated in July 2024. On 13 April 2025, Israel bombed the hospital’s emergency department after evacuations, resulting in no direct casualties, though the Palestinian Centre for Human Rights reported one child died due to disrupted medical care during the evacuation.

Al Aqsa Hospital – Shuhada al Aqsa – Al Aqsa Martyr’s Hospital is a major medical facility in Deir al-Balah, Gaza Strip. It was founded in 2001 and managed at different times by UNRWA, the Gaza Health Ministry, and other NGOs. Before the Gaza war began on October 7, 2023, the hospital treated about 18,000 patients each month. Since then, it has been in the headlines as a critical center for casualties and displaced people. It has faced extreme challenges: shortages of supplies and staff, repeated Israeli attacks, and an overwhelming surge of patients under impossible conditions. After Israel’s ground operation in January 2024, the hospital sheltered tens of thousands of displaced Gazans. Medical teams and civilians were forced to evacuate when the IDF dropped leaflets declaring the area “a dangerous combat zone.” In June 2024, the hospital ran out of fuel. Officials described the situation as “something above emergency.” In July, an Israeli airstrike destroyed a media tent outside the hospital. In August, another strike hit tents sheltering displaced families in the courtyard, killing at least four people, including a woman, and injuring 18. By this point, Al Aqsa was one of the last hospitals still functioning in Gaza. In September 2024, hospital staff warned that shortages might force a complete shutdown. On the night of October 13, 2024, Israeli warplanes struck the hospital again, setting off a massive fire and causing mass burn casualties, including women and children. Israeli officials claimed the strike targeted Hamas fighters allegedly using hospitals for military purposes. Today, Shuhada al Aqsa has become a symbol of the humanitarian crisis in Gaza. It is often cited in reports on civilian suffering and the destruction of medical infrastructure.

Al Jazeera is a Qatar-based international news network founded in 1996, operating television channels, digital platforms, and news services in Arabic and English. Throughout the Gaza conflict, it has provided consistent on-the-ground coverage through its local journalists stationed across the Strip. The network has also produced and broadcast numerous documentary films focusing on wartime conditions in Gaza, the most notable being “Investigating War Crimes in Gaza.” Israeli forces have repeatedly targeted Al Jazeera journalists, killing several journalists as well as family members of other journalists. On April 1, 2024, Israel passed a law banning the network’s operations within the country. Later, on January 1, 2025, the Palestinian Authority also ordered the suspension of Al Jazeera’s broadcasts in Palestine.

Al Yarmouk Stadium, built in Gaza City in 1952 under Egyptian administration, was one of the oldest Palestinian stadiums. It was later restored under the direct supervision of the Municipality of Gaza and became the home ground of Gaza Sports Club. Before the Gaza war, it seated 9,000 spectators and was a central feature of Gazan society. In times of conflict, the stadium often served as a temporary shelter for displaced civilians, most notably at the start of the 2023–2024 Gaza war. Families forced from their homes by Israeli military operations were housed there, turning the facility into an informal refugee camp amid Gaza’s broader humanitarian crisis.On 24 December 2023, during the Israeli ground invasion of Gaza, the IDF occupied the stadium. Hundreds of Palestinians from Gaza City’s Sheikh Radwan neighborhood were detained there, allegedly including children as young as ten and elderly people over seventy. Many were forced to strip to their underwear, with some also blindfolded. On 27 December 2023, the Palestinian Football Association appealed to the International Olympic Committee and FIFA for an “urgent international probe into occupation crimes against sports and athletes in Palestine.” American academic and former professional soccer player Jules Boykoff condemned what he called “glaring” double standards, questioning why the IOC sanctioned Russia for taking over sports facilities but remained silent as Israel turned Gaza’s historic Yarmouk Stadium into an internment site. On 8 January 2024, the Gaza Municipality announced that the IDF had demolished the stadium. By July 2024, a refugee camp had been established on its ruins, housing thousands of displaced Palestinians in appalling conditions with only minimal infrastructure and sanitation.

Al-Azhar University is a prestigious Islamic institution of higher learning located in Cairo, Egypt, founded in 970 CE and considered one of the oldest continuously operating universities in the world. As a leading center of Islamic scholarship and jurisprudence, Al-Azhar serves as an influential religious authority throughout the Sunni Muslim world, with its Grand Imam often issuing religious opinions and statements on contemporary issues. The university plays a significant role in Islamic education, theology, and religious discourse across the Middle East and beyond.

Al-Bureij Refugee Camp is a Palestinian refugee camp located in the central Gaza Strip, east of Salah al-Din Road in the Deir al-Balah Governorate. Established in 1949 by UNRWA, it originally housed 13,000 refugees from the wider Gaza area. Many were first sheltered in tents before permanent homes were constructed. As of 2017, the camp which has its own municipality had 28,024 registered refugees and a total population of 43,515, it is one of the most densely populated areas in Gaza. Before the Gaza war, the camp had six primary schools and two secondary schools, all operated by UNRWA, as of 2014 serving over 9,300 students. While it lacked a full-service hospital, residents relied on the nearby Al-Awda Hospital and Al-Aqsa Martyrs Hospital for emergency care. The Al-Bureij Women’s Health Center provided essential services, including prenatal care and nutritional support, addressing particularly high rates of malnutrition among women and children.During the current war in Gaza, Al-Bureij has been largely destroyed and subjected to severe violence and bombardment. Israeli airstrikes and ground operations have repeatedly targeted the camp, causing numerous casualties and widespread destruction. In June 2024, attacks killed at least 15 people and overwhelmed already strained medical facilities. By May 2025, airstrikes on schools sheltering displaced people killed 49 individuals, most of them women and children. Al-Awda Hospital is no longer operational, and the remaining Al-Aqsa Hospital is overwhelmed with casualties. The Women’s Health Center has ceased functioning, and all schools are closed as educational institutions, with many instead housing displaced families in overcrowded conditions. Al Burej now faces acute humanitarian crises, including repeated forced displacements and severe restrictions on aid. The ongoing conflict has deepened existing challenges such as poverty, malnutrition, and collapsing infrastructure—disproportionately harming children and pregnant women—making the camp a focal point of the humanitarian disaster in Gaza.

Al-Mawasi is a narrow coastal enclave in the southern Gaza Strip, historically an agricultural area known for its fertile soil and underground water, which earned it the nickname “Basket of Food.” [d]Before the current war, it was a small Palestinian Bedouin town with a population of approximately 9,000 people living in around 100 structures[e]. Since the onset of the Gaza War Al-Mawasi’s role and demographics have been drastically transformed. Israel designated it a “humanitarian zone” or “safe area” and repeatedly ordered civilians from across Gaza to evacuate there. As a result, its population has exploded. By mid-2025, an estimated 425,000 displaced people—or more—were crammed into an area of initially just 8.9 square kilometers. Its boundaries shifted over time due to changing Israeli evacuation orders, but at one point population density exceeded 47,700 people per square kilometer—an unprecedented and unmatched figure, a staggering increase from its pre-war state.As of August 2025, the conditions in the enclave are catastrophic. Al-Mawasi has become a vast tent city, devoid of virtually all basic infrastructure: there is no adequate shelter, no functioning water and sewage systems, no solid waste removal, no sufficient latrines, and no medical facilities. Despite its designation as a “safe area,” Al-Mawasi has not been spared from military attack. The UN reported that between March and June 2025 alone, Israeli strikes on the area killed 380 people, including 64 entire families. Today, Al-Mawasi epitomizes the wider humanitarian catastrophe in Gaza—marked by extreme overcrowding, mass displacement, and a severe shortage of life-sustaining resources, including adequate food and access to medical care

Al-Rashid Road is the Gaza Strip’s main coastal highway, running north–south along the Mediterranean and connecting Gaza City to the rest of the territory. Together with the Salah ad-Din Road, a few kilometers to the east, it serves as the primary north–south route through the Gaza Strip. Al-Rashid Road has been devastated by the conflict. Israeli military operations and bombardments have left the once crucial highway truncated, obstructed, and unsafe. Entire sections have been blocked, destroyed, or reduced to rubble by airstrikes, tanks, and troop movements. Movement along much of the road has nearly ceased, paralyzing the passage of people and goods. The road also featured in several key events during the conflict. During the second ceasefire in January 2025, tens of thousands of displaced Gazans used what remained of Al-Rashid Road to walk back to their homes in the northern Gaza Strip. The Al-Mawasi zone—declared “safe” (and later “safer”) by Israel early in the conflict—lies along the southern stretch of the road.

Al-Shifa Hospital, located in Gaza City, the largest medical facility in the Gaza Strip, historically served as the cornerstone of the region’s healthcare system. Initially established in 1946, it evolved into a comprehensive medical complex with specialized surgical units, over 20 operating rooms, and 700 beds, providing critical care to thousands of Palestinians. In the current warfare, following Hamas’ October 7, 2023, attack and Israel’s subsequent military campaign, Al-Shifa has become a focal point of both humanitarian suffering and military contention. Israel has repeatedly targeted the hospital, alleging it serves as a Hamas command and control center, though evidence for these claims remains sharply contested. Palestinians and international agencies see these actions as violations of international law that exacerbate civilian suffering . By February 2025, only 18 of Gaza’s 36 hospitals remained functional after 15 months of conflict. These attacks have resulted in extensive damage; by July 2025, an estimated 70% of the facility was destroyed. The hospital’s functionality has been crippled, reducing its capacity from 700 to approximately 200 beds and leading to severe shortages of medicines, sterilization tools, and basic supplies. Al-Shifa’s relevance extends beyond its physical destruction. It symbolizes the systematic collapse of Gaza’s healthcare system, described by the WHO as “medicide” – the deliberate dismantling of medical infrastructure . The hospital epitomizes the humanitarian catastrophe, where malnutrition, infectious diseases, and overwhelming trauma cases converge amidst rubble and unsanitary conditions .

Al-Yemen Al-Saeed Hospital (Arabic: مستشفى اليمن السعيد) In the context of the Gaza conflict, Al-Yemen Al-Saeed Hospital, located in the Jabalia refugee camp in northern Gaza, served both as a critical medical facility and as a shelter for displaced civilians during intense Israeli military operations. In October 2024, Israeli airstrikes struck displacement tents outside the hospital, killing at least 16–17 Palestinians, including women and children, and wounding dozens more. Earlier in the conflict, the Hamas-run Civil Defence Agency reported that 15 people were killed in an Israeli strike on a tented camp for displaced persons adjacent to the hospital. The Israeli military stated that these strikes targeted “terrorists operating within a command-and-control centre embedded in an area that previously served as a medical compound,” and claimed steps were taken to mitigate civilian harm. However, an Associated Press investigation concluded that Israel provided little evidence of Hamas fighters’ presence in the medical facilities it targeted.

During the Gaza War, Boker has blended journalism with political advocacy and is a staunch proponent of the “no innocents in Gaza” discourse. He has used social media platforms to call for intensified military action, the levelling of entire neighborhoods in Gaza, and to oppose ceasefires. His posts and broadcasts valorize Israeli suffering while ridiculing international concerns over the humanitarian crisis in Gaza. He frequently questions reports of famine and has accused UN agencies of collaborating with Hamas. Media watchdogs and critics have accused him of incitement, publishing fake news, and substituting emotive appeals for rational argument in the name of national resilience. In one instance, he combined his longstanding hostility toward the Bedouin community with anxieties about arms smuggling, falsely reporting that Bedouin citizens were selling massive quantities of drones to Hamas.
Almog Boker’s rise to prominence illustrates a perceived decline in journalistic standards within the Israeli media, where the conflict is often framed as an existential battle between good and evil. In this narrative, civilian suffering in Gaza is largely elided, denied, or justified. As a vocal advocate for aggressive security measures against Palestinians, Boker exemplifies a trend of mainstream journalists who have not only reported on events but have actively shaped public discourse in support of maximalist military objectives and a refusal to consider non-military solutions.

MK Almog Cohen (b. 1988) is an Israeli parliamentarian from the Otzma Yehudit party, which represents the far-right, nationalist fringe of Israeli politics. As a party activist, he was known as “the sheriff,” a semi-affectionate nickname. A staunch supporter of crushing Hamas through military force and severely restricting conditions in Gaza, he is a vocal advocate for the most confrontational approaches to the ongoing conflict.
Cohen is known for his bluntly outspoken and radically anti-Arab views, as well as his hardline security stance. He consistently expresses extreme positions regarding Gaza and blatantly uses dehumanizing rhetoric, having likened Arab citizens of Israel and fellow Arab parliamentarians to sheep. A former policeman, he has been accused of violent behavior towards Bedouin protesters and subsequently founded a local militia unit “to fight Bedouin crime” in the Negev.
Following the Hamas invasion on October 7, during which he joined forces with the military to help repel the attackers, Cohen has been consistently militant, to the extent of being filmed entering Gaza with IDF combat forces. He has called for the streets of Gaza to be “washed with blood.” In February 2025, he posted, “Gaza must be destroyed, and whoever is not destroyed must be exiled from the face of the earth. Revenge is the only thing that will make the enemy pay for his actions.” He supports a complete halt to aid for Gaza, claiming it only strengthens Hamas, and has called for the annexation of the Gaza Strip until all hostages held by Hamas are returned.
Despite his controversial behavior, both within the Knesset and beyond, Cohen remains a mainstay of his party and has faced no serious disciplinary action. Cohen’s rise and wartime behavior highlight the erosion of democratic norms and the weaponization of political office to promote dehumanizing and legally questionable policies towards Palestinians, within and without Israel.

In the Hebrew Bible, Amalek refers to a nation descended from Esau’s grandson of the same name. The Amalekites are portrayed as Israel’s first and most relentless enemy, attacking the Israelites soon after their exodus from Egypt. Because of this unprovoked assault, God commands Israel to “blot out the memory of Amalek” (Deuteronomy 25:19). Over time, Amalek came to symbolize absolute evil and the archetype of those who hate Israel without cause. In Jewish thought, Amalek represents not only a historical people but an enduring moral and spiritual force of cruelty and hatred that recurs in every generation.
During the Gaza War, the term Amalek reemerged prominently in Israeli political, military, and religious discourse. Several politicians and rabbis used it to describe Hamas, portraying the group as a modern embodiment of the biblical enemy. Religious media outlets likewise identified Hamas with Amalek and called for its destruction.
Prominent examples include a joint statement on October 10, 2023, by Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, Defense Minister Yoav Gallant, and then-war cabinet member Benny Gantz, in which Netanyahu cited the command “Remember what Amalek did to you,” linking it to the fighting in Gaza; and a letter he sent to Israeli soldiers in November 2023 reiterating the same phrase. Ahead of the International Criminal Court’s deliberations, Netanyahu clarified that interpreting his reference to Amalek as a call for revenge against Gaza’s residents was “foolish” and reflected a misunderstanding of the verse’s intent.
Invoking Amalek framed the conflict as an existential and moral struggle rather than a purely political one. While intended to fortify national resolve, critics warned that such rhetoric risks dehumanizing Palestinians and blurring the moral boundaries of warfare.

Amit Segal is a leading Israeli journalist and political commentator, currently serving as chief political correspondent for Channel 12 News. Named Israel’s most influential journalist by Globes in 2019–20, he is widely regarded as one of the most prominent figures in Israeli media. Segal’s reporting on the Gaza war has been the subject of considerable debate. He has opposed calls for a ceasefire, supported Jewish settlement in the Gaza Strip, and questioned reports of famine, attributing shortages to Hamas’ diversion of food aid and manipulation of prices. In a June 2024 interview with CNN, he stated that “Gazans can only blame themselves for the hell that Gaza has become… when starvation becomes a strategy [of Hamas], peace moves further out of reach.” In his newsletter It’s Noon in Israel (January 9, 2025), Segal argued that Israel’s annexation of parts of Gaza could “unleash hell on Hamas,” while suggesting that U.S.-approved aid transfers, administered through the IDF or private organizations, might accelerate Hamas’ decline. In 2025, he acknowledged the possibility of a developing hunger crisis in Gaza, attributing it—without substantiation—to what he described in an interview with The New Yorker (July 30, 2025) as “an unholy coalition between the U.N. and Hamas.” Noted for his close access to the Netanyahu government Segal’s combination of investigative reporting and right-leaning political commentaryanalysis has made him an influential, yet contested, figure in Israeli public life. He is the author of The Story of Israeli Politics – A Phone Call at 4 a.m. (Wicked Son, 2025).

Beit Lahiya is a city in the northern Gaza Strip, situated near the border with Israel and close to Gaza City with a population of approximately 70,000-80,000 residents until October 2023. Known for its fertile lands, it has long been associated with agriculture—particularly strawberries, citrus, and olive groves—though traces of earlier settlements and cultural layers highlight its longstanding presence in the region. Its position at the edge of Gaza makes it especially vulnerable during periods of conflict. In the recent Gaza conflict, Beit Lahiya has become emblematic of the devastating toll on civilian areas—being heavily bombarded, functionally destroyed, and declared a disaster zone by local authorities. The town has been central to discussions about humanitarian collapse: nearly all homes have been destroyed, medical facilities obliterated, access to water severely limited, and vast numbers rendered homeless. Moreover, public protests in Beit Lahiya, including rare anti-Hamas demonstrations by residents, have spotlighted widespread frustration with both the ongoing conflict and Hamas’s governance. The toll of the conflict on Beit Lahiya has been stark. In October 2024, after weeks of bombardment, the municipality declared the town a “disaster area,” noting the collapse of food supplies, healthcare, and basic services. That same month, two major airstrikes killed well over a hundred civilians in total, including dozens of women and children, underscoring the scale of destruction and loss of life. Despite these conditions, residents demonstrated resilience through acts of solidarity, such as organizing a communal Iftar in March 2025 to share what little food they had during Ramadan. At the same time, rare protests erupted in the town, with hundreds to thousands demanding both an end to the war and accountability from Hamas, revealing the deep disillusionment and desperation within the community.

Blockade is the deliberate restriction of movement of people, goods, and resources into or out of a territory, employed as a military or political tool to exert control over a population. In Gaza, the blockade imposed by Israel, with Egypt’s cooperation since 2007, is enforced through control of border crossings, sea access, and airspace, alongside extensive permit and inspection systems. As a result, the Gaza Strip had limited access to food, fuel, construction materials, medicine, and medical equipment, while the freedom of movement for over two million residents was severely restricted. These measures have produced widespread humanitarian consequences, including economic collapse, shortages of basic necessities, and the weakening of public health services. The degree of closure has shifted over time—periods of partial easing to allow limited aid have alternated with near-total shutdowns—creating recurring waves of crisis. Critics describe this system as a form of collective punishment, targeting the civilian population as a whole and contributing to mass suffering and destruction.
Israel significantly tightened its blockade after the Oct. 7 attacks, alternating periods of near complete blockade (e.g. early and mid October 2023, March-mid May 2025) with periods in which the blockade was eased (e.g. the second ceasefire between mid-January-early March 2025).

Burial refers to the act of laying a deceased person to rest in the ground, a universal human practice shaped by cultural, spiritual, and religious traditions, while also serving essential public health functions. In the context of Gaza, this practice has been profoundly disrupted by ongoing conflict since October 2023, where high casualty rates, destroyed infrastructure, and restricted access to cemeteries often force burials to take place under emergency conditions, including the use of mass graves or improvised plots. The war in Gaza has transformed burial from a sacred rite into a logistical and humanitarian crisis. With tens of thousands killed and many more trapped beneath rubble, ordinary cemeteries are either destroyed, full, or inaccessible. The Islamic prohibition on cremation leaves families with few alternatives, compelling them to bury relatives quickly and under dangerous conditions. As a result, burial has become a stark symbol of both the sheer scale of loss and the collapse of daily life, highlighting the community’s struggle to preserve dignity for the dead in the face of overwhelming destruction. The extent of this crisis is illustrated by reports that morgues are overflowing, forcing hospitals to bury deceased individuals—sometimes even before their families can claim them—and compelling desperate relatives to dig through rubble with their bare hands to recover the remains of loved ones. In another case, authorities reported that Khan Younis cemetery in southern Gaza was so overwhelmed by casualties that multiple bodies were buried in single graves, with residents resorting to layering burials due to the lack of space. These examples capture how the most basic human ritual—honoring the dead through burial—has been reduced to an improvised act of survival under siege.

A ceasefire is a negotiated suspension of hostilities. Unlike short “humanitarian pauses,” it typically involves reciprocal commitments like hostage/prisoner exchanges, force repositioning, and aid access, often brokered by the UN or third parties.
Between Oct 2023 and Oct 2025, Gaza saw two ceasefires take effect. The first took place between Jan 19–Mar 18, 2025and was mediated by U.S., Qatar andEgypt. It included phased exchanges and limited Israeli pullbacks. Major outlets reported lethal IDF incidents during the truce, and UNmediator statements accused Israel of obstructing aid. Hamas suspended releases on Feb 10, resuming on Feb 13 under pressure, blaming Israel for hundreds of violations. Israel refused to withdraw from the Philadelphi Corridor as expected in the framework. On Mar 2 Israel blocked aid entry, drawing condemnation from mediators and UN officials. On Mar 18 Israel ordered large airstrikes, ending the ceasefire after extension talks failed; Israel said Hamas rejected an extension, while Hamas blamed Israel.
The second ceasefire began on Oct. 10, 2025. It opened with the release of 20 living Israeli hostages and a commitment to return deceased hostages’ remains; Israel released ~2,000 prisoners/detainees and initiated partial pullbacks. By late October, only a small number of remains had been returned and aid levels lagged targets; the ceasefire held in its early phase but remained fragile.
Earlier “humanitarian pauses,” like Nov 24–30, 2023, enabled aid as well as the exchange of 105 Israeli and 240 Palestiniancaptives. Israel cut short renewal discussions when Hamas offered fewer living hostages. Both sides alleged incidents during the pause.
Throughout this period, Israel’s actions and statements raised suspicions of systemic obstruction. Hamas reportedly signaledearly willingness for exchanges, which Israel didn’t pursue. Israel hardened positions and collapsed truces over conditions that could have been negotiable or for falsely cited reasons, (e.g., reliance on disputed media leaks while insisting on Philadelphi/Netzarim terms that negotiators and analysts described as “poison-pill” conditions). Hundreds of Palestinian casualties occurred during pauses. Despite claiming hostage return as a goal, Israel prioritized military success, likely at the cost of hostage lives. Multiple Israeli ministers and coalition figures made on-record statements opposing a comprehensive deal and Israeli and U.S. reports and analyses alleged PM Netanyahu obstructed negotiations due to coalition stability concerns.

Following the events of October 7 Israel has imposed collective punishment on Palestinians in Gaza and the West Bank with even greater intensity, through widespread arson and destruction of civilian infrastructure—including homes, schools, and mosques—as well as violent settler-IDF raids in the West Bank that have resulted in killings, and a deliberate blockade on humanitarian aid, depriving civilians of food, water, and medical supplies. The Euro-Med Human Rights Monitor has documented this policy as intentional starvation. Further evidence of abuse includes IDF soldiers openly looting Palestinian homes, boasting about destroying infrastructure, and mocking displaced families on social media. Senior Israeli military and government officials have repeatedly made public statements dehumanizing Palestinians while advocating for ethnic cleansing and the total destruction of the Gaza Strip. Additionally, Palestinian detainees—including children, women, and disabled individuals—have endured physical and psychological torture under Israeli detention.

The reduction of human beings to something less than human by stripping them of individuality, dignity, and moral worth. Dehumanization is a recurring feature of systems of domination and mass violence: colonial regimes, slavery, apartheid, ethnic cleansing, and war all rely on it to make exploitation and killing imaginable, even acceptable. By turning people into abstractions, statistics, or threats, dehumanization suspends the ordinary restraints that govern how one human being may treat another.
The dehumanization of Palestinians in Gaza is visible both in words and in deeds of many actors worldwide. Israeli discourse and to a lesser extent, international media and some international politicians, casts Palestinians as “human shields” or “terrorists,” recodes civilian spaces as “legitimate targets,” whole neighborhoods collapsed into casualty counts. Palestinian lives are handled as obstacles, numbers, collateral—erased of individuality. Such framings do not merely accompany violence; they enable it by denying the humanity of Palestinians as well as their grief and care, and the justice they deserve beyond recognition.

Dr. Hussam Abu Safiya is a Palestinian pediatrician who served as the director of Kamal Adwan hospital between February 2024 and the hospital’s evacuation in December 2024, during the Israeli operation in North Gaza.
Dr. Abu Safiya drew much international attention in particular between October and December 2024 in light of his repeated decision to remain in the hospital and not evacuate it despite a tight siege that prevented food, water and humanitarian aid from reaching the hospital, and repeated IDF threats, raids and attacks on the hospital. During this period Dr. Abu Safiya shared frequent updates about the conditions in the hospital through social media and media, bringing the story of the hospital and its daily struggles to global audiences. His reports have highlighted the severe shortages of medical supplies, fuel, and the difficulties of operating a hospital under wartime conditions. Over late 2024, Dr. Abu Safiya was briefly detained and released, lost his son and colleagues to IDF attacks, and was injured himself in an attack on the hospital. Despite offers to leave and evacuate with his family, Dr. Abu Safiya refused and decided to stay with his patients until the end.
Dr. Abu Safiya was detained without charge by the IDF in late December 2024 as portrayed by both Palestinian and Israeli footage. He was eventually placed in Ofer Prison inside Israel. His lawyer who met him reported that he was subjected to various forms of torture and abuse. As of writing (Sept. 2025) he remains in Israeli custody in solitary confinement and has lost over 40 kg.

Genocide is defined in international law as acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group. This term has been central to international legal and human rights assessments of Israel’s conduct during the Israel-Gaza War. As of writing, numerous expert bodies and officials, including UN officials, multiple legal scholars and NGOs, have concluded that Israel’s actions may meet the legal threshold for genocide.
In December 2023, South Africa filed a case at the International Court of Justice (ICJ) accusing Israel of violating the Genocide Convention. The ICJ ruled acknowledged in January 2024 that the claim was “plausible” and issued provisional measures requiring Israel to prevent acts of genocide. As of July 2025, the case remains under deliberation.
Evidence shows that the genocide claim is rooted in Israel’s sustained bombing of civilian infrastructure, the extensive destruction of homes and public institutions, the use of starvation and siege as methods of warfare, and repeated dehumanising statements by Israeli political and military officials. As of August 2025, over 60,000 Palestinians have been confirmed as killed in Gaza, more than half of them women, children, and elderly people. Independent research and health experts estimate that the true number of fatalities, when accounting for those missing under rubble and deaths from starvation, illness, and lack of medical care, is likely significantly higher. Statements by Israeli leaders have included explicit calls for the mass displacement and permanent removal of Gaza’s population. These actions, and the intent they suggest, have led many observers to conclude that Israel’s campaign in Gaza constitutes an unfolding genocide under international law.

Hospitals have been central to Gaza’s humanitarian collapse, despite being protected as civilian objects under international humanitarian law (IHL). Such protection is lost only if facilities are used for “acts harmful to the enemy,” and even then, attacks must meet conditions of warning, necessity, and proportionality.
An early independent assessment found 84% of Gaza’s health facilities damaged or destroyed, crippling medical services. By May 2024, The Washington Post reported that 32 of 36 hospitals had been hit by munitions, raided by Israeli forces, or forced to close. As of 1 October 2025, both OCHA and Health Cluster listed only 14 hospitals as partially functional amid severe shortages of power, water, staff, and medical supplies. Al-Aqsa Martyrs Hospital has been repeatedly struck, including three drone strikes on 4 June 2025 that damaged its water tanks and solar panels; OCHA has recorded multiple lethal incidents in and around the facility. As of October 2025, over 1700 health workers have been killed, according to multiple media sources.
Reports describe systematic raids, sieges, and occupations. Human Rights Watch documented Israeli forces cutting off electricity, water, food, and medicines; mistreating staff and patients; and destroying equipment during operations. Physicians have performed amputations and C-sections without anesthesia, while power outages and oxygen failures caused preventable deaths, including among infants. At Kamal Adwan Hospital, a single surgeon served the entire north in November 2024, after strikes destroyed water tanks and oxygen facilities.
A Reuters forensic analysis of the August 2025 strike on Nasser Hospital, which killed 22 people, contradicted the IDF’s account and raised serious IHL concerns about warning and targeting. While the IDF asserts hospitals were used for military purposes, witnesses interviewed by Human Rights Watch at al-Shifa, Kamal Adwan, and Nasser reported seeing no Palestinian fighters during the raids.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) is an independent tribunal based in The Hague, mandated to prosecute individuals for genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. It operates under the Rome Statute, which 124 states have ratified.

In November 2024, the Court formally issued arrest warrants requested by the ICC Prosecutor against Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Defense Minister Yoav Gallant, citing alleged war crimes and crimes against humanity in Gaza, including the use of starvation as a weapon. As of mid-2025, the case remains in the pretrial phase and the suspects remain at large.

Israel is not a party to the Rome Statute and rejects the Court’s jurisdiction. The United States, also not a member, condemned the ICC’s decision and imposed retaliatory measures. In early 2025, Congress passed legislation sanctioning ICC personnel, while the executive branch froze assets, imposed travel bans, and warned that U.S. citizens aiding the Court could face penalties.

Among ICC member states, several—including the Netherlands, Spain, Norway, New Zealand, Belgium, and South Africa—have confirmed their intent to comply with the warrants. Others, including Hungary, Germany, France, Italy, and Poland, have refused or questioned enforcement, citing legal or political concerns. Hungary has formally initiated withdrawal from the Court.

The International Court of Justice, based in The Hague, is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. It adjudicates disputes between states and issues advisory opinions on legal questions referred by UN organs and specialised agencies. Its rulings are binding on states, though the Court has no enforcement mechanism of its own. The ICJ is distinct from the International Criminal Court (ICC): it addresses state responsibility under international law, rather than prosecuting individuals.
]=1t Israeli forces and settlements, Israel has continued to control the territory’s airspace, maritime zone, population registry, and all border crossings. Since May 2024, this has included the Rafah crossing, which had previously been administered by Egypt and Hamas. The war has dramatically intensified these forms of control. Israeli forces have re-entered large parts of Gaza, imposed extended ground operations, and further restricted the flow of food, water, electricity, and humanitarian aid – effectively tightening the blockade into a condition of near-total closure.
In the West Bank and East Jerusalem, the occupation remains direct and expansive. During the course of the war, restrictions on Palestinian movement have deepened, military raids and curfews have intensified, and settler violence has escalated in frequency and scale. East Jerusalem, though unilaterally annexed by Israel, continues to be regarded as occupied under international law due to the absence of international recognition and ongoing discriminatory policies affecting Palestinian residents.
The classification of these areas as “Occupied Territories” carries legal obligations under the Fourth Geneva Convention, including the protection of civilian populations, the prohibition of collective punishment and forced displacement, and the obligation to ensure humanitarian access. These obligations have come under renewed international scrutiny due to developments during the war.

Iron Dome is a mobile air defence system developed by Israel to intercept and destroy short-range rockets, artillery shells, and mortars. It became operational in 2011 and has been used extensively in conflicts with Hamas and other Palestinian armed groups. The system detects incoming projectiles, assesses their trajectories, and intercepts those that are likely to strike populated areas using radar-guided[a] missiles. Israeli authorities report a high interception rate, often above 90 percent, for projectiles deemed threatening. While Iron Dome does not eliminate all risk, it has significantly reduced Israeli civilian casualties and physical damage. The presence of Iron Dome has influenced the legal and ethical framing of the conflict. Analysts and human rights observers note that while Israeli civilians are largely protected by advanced technology and early-warning systems, Palestinian civilians in Gaza have no comparable defences against Israeli airstrikes. This technological disparity[b] is frequently cited in discussions of proportionality, necessity, and the protection of civilians under international humanitarian law.

Khan Younis is a major city in southern Gaza, historically home to over 400,000 residents, including many refugees registered with UNRWA.
Following Israel’s evacuation orders for northern Gaza in October 2023, Khan Younis received a large influx of displaced civilians. In late 2023 and early 2024, it became a central target of Israeli military operations, including intense aerial bombardment and one of the war’s longest ground invasions. Entire neighbourhoods were destroyed, and critical infrastructure – including the Nasser Hospital – was severely damaged. Israeli forces occupied parts of the city, and reports documented mass arrests, home demolitions, and forced displacement.
By mid-2024, the city was largely depopulated and uninhabitable. Its destruction has made it a central example in legal discussions of disproportionate attacks and violations of international humanitarian law. As of 2025, Khan Younis remains among the most devastated areas in Gaza.

Curtailing free speech refers to the suppression or restriction of public expression, particularly when it challenges dominant political or military narratives. During the Gaza war, such suppression has been documented in Gaza, Israel, and the United States.
In Gaza, Israeli military actions have rendered free speech nearly impossible. Foreign journalists have been barred from entering, while local journalists operate under extreme and often lethal conditions. Over 240 journalists have been killed, many in strikes that human rights organizations suspect were deliberate. As a result, Palestinians’ ability to document or publicly communicate the effects of the war has been severely constrained.
In Israel, criticism of the war has faced widespread censorship and social sanction. Palestinian citizens of Israel have been arrested for expressing solidarity with Gaza’s victims. Educators and cultural figures have faced professional consequences for voicing anti-war views. Police have raided the offices of an Israeli-Palestinian left-wing political party and targeted anti-war activists. Senior officials have threatened punitive measures against Haaretz, perceived as critical of the war, and the Al Jazeera channel was banned.
In the United States, expressions of solidarity with Palestinians or criticism of Israeli policy have been suppressed through institutional and political channels. University students and faculty have faced suspensions, job loss, and disciplinary proceedings. Police dismantled campus protest encampments, often with arrests. Legislation has been introduced or advanced to equate criticism of Israel with antisemitism, chilling political advocacy, and threatening visa status. Financial donors and university administrations have also intervened to limit campus speech.

OCHA (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs) is a United Nations agency responsible for coordinating international humanitarian response in crises, such as armed conflicts and natural disasters. The office serves as the UN’s focal point for humanitarian issues and maintains field presence in crisis-affected regions to facilitate aid delivery and protection of civilians.
In the context of the Gaza conflict, OCHA served as coordinator between the various UN agencies, humanitarian aid organizations, the Palestinian governments in the West Bank and Gaza, and Israel (working especially with COGAT). OCHA played a significant role negotiating and coordinating the entrance of humanitarian aid into the Gaza Strip. In addition, since the beginning of the Gaza conflict, OCHA published a series of public reports (daily at first, weekly as of writing in Sept. 2025) that conveyed much information to the public. These reports became a commonly-used source of information.
Some OCHA officials drew attention through their actions and statements. Notable in this case is Jonathan Whittall, OCHA’s head who began speaking out more forcibly in 2025. In response to his public critique, Israel declined to extend Whittall’s visa and he had to depart the country by late July 2025.

The Al-Shati refugee camp (Arabic: مخيم الشاطئ), also known as Beach Camp, is one of the eight historic Palestinian refugee camps in the Gaza Strip. Established by the UN in 1948 to house approximately 23,000 Palestinians displaced from cities such as Jaffa, Lod, and Beersheba during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, it has since grown into a densely populated urban district within Gaza City, with a registered refugee population of over 95,000. Covering just 0.52 square kilometers, it is one of the most densely populated places in the world and heavily dependent on UNRWA relief. Before the Gaza war, the camp had two health centers, one area relief center, 27 elementary schools, and six secondary schools. Most residents worked in agriculture, fishing, or as laborers. Due to its location in northern Gaza and its dense urban fabric, Israeli forces identified the camp as a Hamas stronghold, and it has become a significant battlefield in the conflict. Airstrikes in October 2023 destroyed multiple mosques and killed numerous civilians. In November 2023, following intense battles, Israel announced it had taken complete control of the camp, claiming to have killed hundreds of militants there. The fighting has continued, with reports of deadly strikes on tents sheltering displaced persons within the camp as recently as June 2025. The camp embodies the broader humanitarian crisis in Gaza. Its infrastructure—including water systems, health centers, and schools—has been devastated, compounding a man-made famine that has left residents facing extreme hunger and desperation.

Torching houses refers to the burning of residential and other civilian buildings during the Gaza war by military forces. Structures that had been temporarily used by troops were set on fire, sometimes on the initiative of individual soldiers and sometimes under orders from field commanders. These actions were carried out with improvised incendiary means and left the buildings uninhabitable. Alongside demolitions carried out with explosives or heavy engineering equipment, arson often stemmed from local and sporadic decisions, at times without clear oversight. Testimonies describe fires set as part of informal unit practices, as acts of reprisal, or as a customary way of vacating a structure, with soldiers in some cases leaving written messages. Some soldiers also justified the burning as a way to prevent leaving behind traces of their presence or of operational methods used inside the houses, so that no evidence would remain once the forces had withdrawn. In other cases, arson was presented as an extension of demolition practices applied to buildings suspected of military use, but in practice was also directed at homes without verified military function.

Under international humanitarian law, civilian buildings are protected from attack. Destruction of property is permitted only when there is an immediate and absolute military necessity, and it must comply with the principles of proportionality and precaution. Torching houses without such justification constitutes a violation of these rules, and destroying property for the purposes of reprisal or deterrence is explicitly prohibited and may amount to a war crime. Such actions rendered homes permanently uninhabitable, deepened the scale of urban devastation, and provoked legal and political debate in the international arena.

Yehuda Vach is an officer in the IDF with the rank of Tat-Aluf (Brigadier General) who currently serves as the commander of the Sinai Division (252) and currently resides in the settlement of Meirav. Prior to his enlistment, he studied at the Bnei David pre-military academy, which is identified with the Hardal faction of Religious Zionism. Throughout the fighting in the Gaza war, Vach’s name came up in many contexts, among them command of the Netzarim Corridor, the bombing of the Turkish hospital for cancer patients without receiving authorization for it, and giving an order to fire shells at civilians who did not pose a threat in humanitarian aid zones.